Auditory Processing Disorder (APD)
Also known as Central Auditory Processing Disorder, this is a condition that adversely affects how sound that travels unimpeded through the ear is processed or interpreted by the brain. Individuals with APD do not recognize subtle differences between sounds in words, even when the sounds are loud and clear enough to be heard. They can also find it difficult to tell where sounds are coming from, to make sense of the order of sounds, or to block out competing background noises.
A. Dyscalculia
Dyscalculia is a specific learning disability that affects a person‘s ability to understand numbers and learn math. Individuals with this type of LD may also have poor comprehension of math symbols, may struggle with memorizing and organizing numbers, have difficulty telling time, or have trouble with counting.
B. Dysgraphia
Dyscalculia is a specific learning disability that affects a person‘s handwriting ability and fine motor skills. Problems may include illegible handwriting, inconsistent spacing, poor spatial planning on paper, poor spelling, and difficulty composing writing as well as thinking and writing at the same time.
C. Dyslexia
Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that affects reading and related language-based processing skills. The severity can differ in each individual but can affect reading fluency; decoding, reading comprehension, recall, writing, spelling, and sometimes speech and can exist along with other related disorders. Dyslexia is sometimes referred to as a Language Based Learning Disability.
D. Language Processing Disorder
Language Processing Disorder is a specific type of Auditory Processing Disorder (APD) in which there is difficulty attaching meaning to sound groups that form words, sentences and stories. While an APD affects the interpretation of all sounds coming into the brain, a Language Processing Disorder (LPD) relates only to the processing of language. LPD can affect expressive language and/or receptive language.
E. Non-Verbal Learning Disabilities
Non-Verbal Learning Disabilities is a disorder which is usually characterized by a significant discrepancy between higher verbal skills and weaker motor, visual-spatial and social skills. Typically, an individual with NLD (or NVLD) has trouble interpreting nonverbal cues like facial expressions or body language, and may have poor coordination.
F. Visual Perceptual/Visual Motor Deficit
Visual Perceptual/Visual Motor Deficit is a disorder that affects the understanding of information that a person sees, or the ability to draw or copy. A characteristic seen in people with learning disabilities such as Dysgraphia or Non-verbal LD, it can result in missing subtle differences in shapes or printed letters, losing place frequently, struggles with cutting, holding pencil too tightly, or poor eye/hand coordination.
Speech and Language Impairments Speech and language impairment means a communication disorder such as stuttering, impaired articulation, language impairment, or a voice impairment that adversely affects a child‘s educational performance. It is disorder that adversely affects the child's ability to talk, understand, read, and write.
This disability category can be divided into two groups: speech impairments and language impairments. Speech Impairments There are three basic types of speech impairments: articulation disorders, fluency disorders, and voice disorders. Articulation disorders are errors in the production of speech sounds that may be related to anatomical or physiological limitations in the skeletal, muscular, or neuromuscular support for speech production. These disorders include:
- Omissions: (bo for boat)
- Substitutions: (wabbit for rabbit)
- Distortions: (shlip for sip)
Fluency disorders are difficulties with the rhythm and timing of speech characterized by hesitations, repetitions, or prolongations of sounds, syllables, words, or phrases.
Common fluency disorders include:
- Stuttering: rapid-fire repetitions of consonant or vowel sounds especially at the beginning of words, prolongations, hesitations, interjections, and complete verbal blocks
- Cluttering: excessively fast and jerky speech
Language Impairments
There are five basic areas of language impairments: phonological disorders, morphological disorders, semantic disorders, syntactical deficits, and pragmatic difficulties.
Phonological disorders are defined as the abnormal organization of the phonological system, or a significant deficit in speech production or perception. A child with a phonological disorder may be described as hard to understand or as not saying the sounds correctly.
Apraxia of speech is a specific phonological disorder where the student may want to speak but has difficulty planning what to say and the motor movements to use. Morphological disorders are defined as difficulties with morphological inflections (inflections on nouns, verbs, and adjectives that signal different kinds of meanings). Semantic disorders are characterized by poor vocabulary development, inappropriate use of word meanings, and/or inability to comprehend word meanings. These students will demonstrate restrictions in word meanings, difficulty with multiple word meanings, excessive use of nonspecific terms (e.g., thing and stuff), and indefinite references (e.g., that and there).
Syntactic deficits are characterized by difficulty in acquiring the rules that govern word order and others aspects of grammar such as subject-verb agreement. Typically, these students produce shorter and less elaborate sentences with fewer cohesive conjunctions than their peers.
Pragmatic difficulties are characterized as problems in understanding and using language in different social contexts. These students may lack an understanding of the rules for making eye contact, respecting personal space, requesting information, and introducing topics.
5. Autism
Autism means a developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal
communication and social interaction, generally evident before age three that adversely
affects a child‘s educational performance. Other characteristics often associated with autism are engaging in repetitive activities and stereotyped movements, resistance to environmental
change or change in daily routines, and unusual responses to sensory experiences.
The term
autism does not apply if the child‘s educational performance is adversely affected primarily
because the child has an emotional disturbance, as defined in #5 below. A child who shows
the characteristics of autism after age 3 could be diagnosed as having autism if the criteria
above are satisfied.
Autism is a neurodevelopment disorder defined by impairments in social and
communication development, accompanied by stereotyped patterns of behaviour and interest
(Landa, 2007). Autism is pervasive developmental disorder characterized by lack of normal
sociability, impaired communication and repetitive obsessive behaviour such as politeness,
turn-taking (Young & Nettlebeck , 2005).
Linked to Profound Learning Disability (PLDs) are
further impairments in the production of speech. Among these are '
(i) personal pronouns
reversal for instance the use of ―''I'" instead of ―"'you" and vice-versa,
(ii) the misuse of such
prepositions as ―"in", ―on, ―under, ―next to (...), and
(iii) the prevalence, in speech, of
echolalia formal repetition of other‘s utterances (Arron and Gittens, 1999).
Children with autism vary literally in their use of words, (Rutter, 1966). Communication
deficiencies may leave a lasting mark of social retardation on the child. The link, between
social skills and language is made evident by the often spontaneous appearance of
affectionate and dependent behaviour in these children after they have been trained to speak
(Churchill, 1966 & Hewett, 1965).
6. Emotional and Behavioural
Disorders
According to Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), the term Emotional and
Behavioural Disorders means a condition exhibiting one or more of the following
characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects
educational performance
1) An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors;
2) An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and
teachers;
3) Inappropriate types of behaviour or feelings under normal circumstances;
4) A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression; or
5) A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school
problems.
Classification of behavioural and emotional disorders
An individual having behavioural or emotional disorders can exhibit widely varied types
of behaviour. Therefore, different classification systems of behavioural and emotional disorders
can be used for special education. Different professionals have developed a classification
system, which shows some promise for educational practice.
These include:
- Conduct disorder: individuals may seek attention, are disruptive and act out. The disorder is classified by type: overt (with violence or tantrums) versus covert (with lying, stealing, and/or drug use).
- Socialized aggression: individuals join subculture group of peers who are openly disrespectful to their peers, teachers, and parents. Common are delinquency and dropping out of school. Early symptoms include stealing, running away from home, habitual lying, cruelty to animals, and fire setting.
- Attention problems- These individuals may have attention deficit, are easily destructible and have poor concentration. They are frequently impulsive and may not think the consequence of their actions.
- Anxiety/Withdrawn- These individuals are self-conscious, reserved, and unsure of themselves. They typically have low self-esteem and withdraw from immediate activities. They are also anxious and frequently depressed.
- Psychotic behaviour: These individuals show more bizarre behaviour. They may hallucinate, deal in a fantasy world and may even talk in gibberish.
- Motor excess: These students are hyperactive.
They cannot sit nor listen to others nor
keep their attention focused.
Kauffman (1993) conclude that emotion or behavioural disorders fall into two broad
classifications:
1) Externalizing Behaviour: also called under controlled disorder, include such problems
disobedience, disruptiveness, fighting, tempers tantrums, irresponsibility, jealous, anger,
attention seeking etc…
2) Internalizing Behaviour: also known as over controlled disorders, include such problems
anxiety, immaturity, shyness, social withdrawal, feeling of inadequacy (inferiority), guilt,
depression and worries a great deal.
Causes of behavioural and emotional disorders
Behavioural and emotion disorders result from many causes, these includes the following.
1. Biological- includes genetic disorders, brain damage, and malnutrition, allergies,
temperament and damage to the central nervous system.
2. Family factors- include family interactions, family influence, child abuse, neglect, and
poor disciplinary practices at home.
3. Cultural factors- include some traditional and cultural negative practices, for example
watching violence and sexually oriented movies and TV programs.
4. Environmental factors- include peer pressure, living in impoverished areas, and schooling
practices that are unresponsive to individual needs.
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